Diabetic Comorbidities and its Molecular Mechanism

Diabetes mellitus, particularly type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), is a complex metabolic disorder frequently accompanied by a wide array of comorbidities that significantly increase morbidity and mortality. These comorbidities encompass cardiovascular diseases (e.g., hypertension, atherosclerosis, stroke), renal dysfunction (diabetic nephropathy), hepatic disorders (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease), neurological complications (diabetic neuropathy and cognitive decline), and reproductive disturbances (male and female infertility). The shared pathophysiological mechanisms underlying these complications include chronic hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, low-grade systemic inflammation, and advanced glycation end-product (AGE) formation. These factors contribute to endothelial dysfunction, mitochondrial impairment, and multiorgan cellular injury. Moreover, the presence of comorbidities further complicates glycemic control and worsens clinical outcomes, creating a vicious cycle of disease progression. Early detection and integrated management strategies targeting both hyperglycemia and comorbid conditions are essential for improving the quality of life and reducing the long-term burden of diabetes. This review aims to elucidate the major diabetic comorbidities, their underlying mechanisms, and the importance of comprehensive care in diabetic patients.